PETROL-ELECTRIC VEHICLES AND MAIN MARINE PROPULSION BY ELECTRICITY
Between the petrol-driven vehicle and the electric automobile there
is an interesting series of links provided by 'petrol-electric' systems.
At one end of the chain, electricity plays an important part in supplying power to drive the car. At the other end, electrical apparatus is introduced merely as a form of transmission gear between the petrol engine and the driving axle. The reason for attempting the petrol-electric combination will be most readily understood by considering the latter arrangement first.
The petrol engine is a high-speed engine, capable of working most satisfactorily when it runs at a uniform rate with a constant load. On the other hand, the speed of the driving axle of a car varies from a very much lower speed down to zero. It is therefore necessary, when driving a vehicle with a petrol engine, to arrange some forms of variable speed-reducing transmission gear between the engine and the driving axle. The problem is further complicated by the fact that the petrol engine is irreversible, has practically no 'starting torque,' and has a very slight overload capacity. It has to be started running 'light' and then switched on to a low gear which gives sufficient power to overcome the inertia of the car. As the speed of the car rises, there have to be successive changes of gear. These difficulties are, of course, accentuated when dealing with the heavy weight of an omnibus.
Practically all the troubles with petrol motor omnibuses have resided in the gear; and even the most ardent enthusiast for the all-electric faith must admit that the motor engineer has overcome these troubles (in great part if not wholly) with remarkable skill and ingenuity. But the complications of an adjustable mechanical bridge between a high-speed engine and a varying low-speed axle are so great that an electrical bridge was proposed as a substitute. By coupling the engine direct to a dynamo and by using the current so generated to drive variable-speed motors geared to the driving axle, the electrical engineer hoped to get better working results from the petrol motor than could be obtained with any mechanical transmission gear.
The most conspicuous advantage, apart from the quietness of running at all speeds, lies in the ease and smoothness with which the petrol-electric motor can start and gain speed. In this respect the combination system is practically on the same level as (or even superior to) the electric tramcar or the electric automobile. There is an entire absence of the jerks and jarring noises which usually accompany the starting of a motor omnibus. The same facility of control is of advantage in adjusting speed to suit the other traffic on the road, and also in negotiating hills.
In one class of petrol-electric vehicles the electric transmission gear is continuously used. In another, it is used at all speeds except the highest, when the engine is coupled directly (by a magnetic clutch) to a mechanical driving gear. In a third class the arrangement is more complicated, as it involves the use of storage batteries as an auxiliary to the power provided directly by the petrol engine. The Fischer type of petrol-electric vehicle uses electric transmission solely and has a fairly large battery to supplement the engine-produced current when steep hills are being negotiated. At ordinary speeds on level roads the surplus power produced by the engine goes to charge the battery.
The 'Automixte' type is peculiar in using the mechanical transmission gear all the time. The dynamo coupled to the engine supplies current to a small battery when surplus power is available; the same dynamo may be driven as a motor by current from the battery when such assistance is wanted at starting or on steep hills. The electric part of the equipment thus acts first as a generator and then as a motor, the change taking place automatically.
These different petrol-electric devices are very attractive from the engineering point of view, but at the present time it is uncertain whether they will realise the hopes of their inventors. The additional weight of the electric equipment is against them; and in some cases there appears to be a lower all-round efficiency. So that the motor-omnibus world, as a whole, continues to fix its faith upon the improved forms of mechanical transmission.
The underlying idea of the petrol-electric system has, however, been suggested for marine propulsion with a somewhat better prospect of success.
There is a partial analogy between the conditions of motor omnibus working and of ship propulsion with turbines. The steam turbine is, like the petrol engine, essentially a high-speed machine. The screw propeller, on the other hand, works most efficiently at low speeds. Therefore the marine engineer has to try and find some common denominator between an engine which runs most efficiently at high speeds and a propeller which is at its best when revolving comparatively slowly.
The gulf between the two has been narrowed by the improved design of propellers. Some engineers assert that continued improvements will bridge the gulf completely. Others have sought the solution in the same way as the motor engineer—by the use of mechanical change-speed gears. The suggestion has also been made to employ hydraulic gear as an intermediary; and in some recent vessels reciprocating engines with comparatively low-speed turbines driven by exhaust steam have been adopted.
In the electric system the turbine is coupled direct to an electric generator and may run continuously at the highest economical speed. The propeller shaft may be quite short and is driven by a slow speed motor connected by cables to the generator. Various arrangements for controlling the supply of current to the motor (with appropriate design of generator and motor) have been devised by Mr Durtnall, Mr Mavor, and other workers in this field; but whatever the details of these arrangements may be, they all give a wide range of speed both ahead and astern. The direct drive with the steam turbine has really only one speed—full speed ahead; and as the turbine is irreversible, 'astern' turbines have to be installed in addition. These limitations and complications are removed entirely when electrical transmission is adopted.
Moreover, the electric system can be so arranged that the control gear may be operated from thebridge itself. The facility in manoeuvring is, in fact, so marked that it would recommend electric marine propulsion even if that system offered no advantages on the score of economy in weight, space, and steam consumption over the existing systems. The steam turbine, it may be noted, has been adopted so far only in high-speed vessels; and it is generally recognised that its extension to vessels which run at 12 or 16 knots depends upon its adaptation to slow-speed propellers. Advocates of electric marine propulsion claim that they hold the most efficient solution of this problem.
It may also be pointed out that a considerable section of marine engineers look forward to the use of internal combustion engines (driven by oil or gas) on board ship. For naval purposes especially it would be a great advantage to do away with funnels and so leave the decks more free for gun mountings. As internal combustion engines are irreversible, the electric system offers a means of escape from a fundamental drawback to their use at sea. Here again the perfection of manoeuvring power, especially with twin screws (either of which may be controlled from the bridge through a wide range of speed ahead or astern), gives the electric system a strong claim for consideration by the naval authorities.
It is hardly necessary, except as a matter of curiosity, to refer to the suggestions made, from time to time, of accumulator-driven ocean steamships. Some wonderful pictures have been published of large vessels with tons of ballast in the form of storage batteries. They are likely to remain in this ideal condition, for although the driving of a large vessel by stored electricity is quite possible, it is also about the most expensive method which has ever been proposed.
Electric power from storage batteries has been used as an auxiliary in the propulsion and manoeuvring of submarines. In aerial navigation electricity has so far been employed to a very limited extent. Small airships have been designed to carry electric accumulators connected with various motor-driven propellers for raising, lowering, going ahead or astern, and steering. The switches which control the passage of the current to these propellers are connected with a wireless telegraph receiver, so that each operation may be started or stopped by a particular ether wave or series of waves. Demonstrations of such 'wireless-controlled' airships have been given in theatres; their field of usefulness, if any, is in connection with war on land or sea. Whether they will have any better fate than other devices for dropping bombs over the enemy's camps or ships remains to be seen.
One inventor has, I believe, suggested a means of direct electrical propulsion for aeroplanes, the current being derived from a petrol-driven generator and carried to motors attached to propellers so arranged as to give certain advantages in stability and manoeuvring. As yet, however, the probability of electricity being applied to locomotion in the air as well as on land and on sea is somewhat remote.
At one end of the chain, electricity plays an important part in supplying power to drive the car. At the other end, electrical apparatus is introduced merely as a form of transmission gear between the petrol engine and the driving axle. The reason for attempting the petrol-electric combination will be most readily understood by considering the latter arrangement first.
The petrol engine is a high-speed engine, capable of working most satisfactorily when it runs at a uniform rate with a constant load. On the other hand, the speed of the driving axle of a car varies from a very much lower speed down to zero. It is therefore necessary, when driving a vehicle with a petrol engine, to arrange some forms of variable speed-reducing transmission gear between the engine and the driving axle. The problem is further complicated by the fact that the petrol engine is irreversible, has practically no 'starting torque,' and has a very slight overload capacity. It has to be started running 'light' and then switched on to a low gear which gives sufficient power to overcome the inertia of the car. As the speed of the car rises, there have to be successive changes of gear. These difficulties are, of course, accentuated when dealing with the heavy weight of an omnibus.
Fig. 9. Elevation and plan of a petrol-electric
motor omnibus equipped by W. A. Stevens, Ltd. Directly behind the front
wheels is the petrol engine, driving a dynamo through a flexible
coupling. The dynamo supplies current to the motor directly behind it;
and the motor drives the rear wheels through a cardan shaft. The
transmission of power between the engine and the shaft is electrical at
all speeds.
Practically all the troubles with petrol motor omnibuses have resided in the gear; and even the most ardent enthusiast for the all-electric faith must admit that the motor engineer has overcome these troubles (in great part if not wholly) with remarkable skill and ingenuity. But the complications of an adjustable mechanical bridge between a high-speed engine and a varying low-speed axle are so great that an electrical bridge was proposed as a substitute. By coupling the engine direct to a dynamo and by using the current so generated to drive variable-speed motors geared to the driving axle, the electrical engineer hoped to get better working results from the petrol motor than could be obtained with any mechanical transmission gear.
The most conspicuous advantage, apart from the quietness of running at all speeds, lies in the ease and smoothness with which the petrol-electric motor can start and gain speed. In this respect the combination system is practically on the same level as (or even superior to) the electric tramcar or the electric automobile. There is an entire absence of the jerks and jarring noises which usually accompany the starting of a motor omnibus. The same facility of control is of advantage in adjusting speed to suit the other traffic on the road, and also in negotiating hills.
In one class of petrol-electric vehicles the electric transmission gear is continuously used. In another, it is used at all speeds except the highest, when the engine is coupled directly (by a magnetic clutch) to a mechanical driving gear. In a third class the arrangement is more complicated, as it involves the use of storage batteries as an auxiliary to the power provided directly by the petrol engine. The Fischer type of petrol-electric vehicle uses electric transmission solely and has a fairly large battery to supplement the engine-produced current when steep hills are being negotiated. At ordinary speeds on level roads the surplus power produced by the engine goes to charge the battery.
The 'Automixte' type is peculiar in using the mechanical transmission gear all the time. The dynamo coupled to the engine supplies current to a small battery when surplus power is available; the same dynamo may be driven as a motor by current from the battery when such assistance is wanted at starting or on steep hills. The electric part of the equipment thus acts first as a generator and then as a motor, the change taking place automatically.
These different petrol-electric devices are very attractive from the engineering point of view, but at the present time it is uncertain whether they will realise the hopes of their inventors. The additional weight of the electric equipment is against them; and in some cases there appears to be a lower all-round efficiency. So that the motor-omnibus world, as a whole, continues to fix its faith upon the improved forms of mechanical transmission.
The underlying idea of the petrol-electric system has, however, been suggested for marine propulsion with a somewhat better prospect of success.
There is a partial analogy between the conditions of motor omnibus working and of ship propulsion with turbines. The steam turbine is, like the petrol engine, essentially a high-speed machine. The screw propeller, on the other hand, works most efficiently at low speeds. Therefore the marine engineer has to try and find some common denominator between an engine which runs most efficiently at high speeds and a propeller which is at its best when revolving comparatively slowly.
Fig. 10. Diagrammatic section of a steamship which
has been 'converted' from the ordinary method of propulsion to the
'Paragon' system of electric main marine propulsion. The reciprocating
engine has been replaced by a steam turbine, coupled direct to an
electric generator which supplies current to a motor attached to the
propeller shaft. The tests carried out with this vessel will indicate
the advantages of the electric method of propulsion even with the usual
long length of shaft. The vessel has a gross tonnage of 1241, and its
speed is 9 knots. The engines replaced ran at 78 revolutions per minute
and gave 500 brake horse power. The turbine now installed runs at 2500
r.p.m., and develops 630 brake horse power. (Illustration reproduced by
courtesy of The Electrician.)
The gulf between the two has been narrowed by the improved design of propellers. Some engineers assert that continued improvements will bridge the gulf completely. Others have sought the solution in the same way as the motor engineer—by the use of mechanical change-speed gears. The suggestion has also been made to employ hydraulic gear as an intermediary; and in some recent vessels reciprocating engines with comparatively low-speed turbines driven by exhaust steam have been adopted.
In the electric system the turbine is coupled direct to an electric generator and may run continuously at the highest economical speed. The propeller shaft may be quite short and is driven by a slow speed motor connected by cables to the generator. Various arrangements for controlling the supply of current to the motor (with appropriate design of generator and motor) have been devised by Mr Durtnall, Mr Mavor, and other workers in this field; but whatever the details of these arrangements may be, they all give a wide range of speed both ahead and astern. The direct drive with the steam turbine has really only one speed—full speed ahead; and as the turbine is irreversible, 'astern' turbines have to be installed in addition. These limitations and complications are removed entirely when electrical transmission is adopted.
Moreover, the electric system can be so arranged that the control gear may be operated from thebridge itself. The facility in manoeuvring is, in fact, so marked that it would recommend electric marine propulsion even if that system offered no advantages on the score of economy in weight, space, and steam consumption over the existing systems. The steam turbine, it may be noted, has been adopted so far only in high-speed vessels; and it is generally recognised that its extension to vessels which run at 12 or 16 knots depends upon its adaptation to slow-speed propellers. Advocates of electric marine propulsion claim that they hold the most efficient solution of this problem.
It may also be pointed out that a considerable section of marine engineers look forward to the use of internal combustion engines (driven by oil or gas) on board ship. For naval purposes especially it would be a great advantage to do away with funnels and so leave the decks more free for gun mountings. As internal combustion engines are irreversible, the electric system offers a means of escape from a fundamental drawback to their use at sea. Here again the perfection of manoeuvring power, especially with twin screws (either of which may be controlled from the bridge through a wide range of speed ahead or astern), gives the electric system a strong claim for consideration by the naval authorities.
It is hardly necessary, except as a matter of curiosity, to refer to the suggestions made, from time to time, of accumulator-driven ocean steamships. Some wonderful pictures have been published of large vessels with tons of ballast in the form of storage batteries. They are likely to remain in this ideal condition, for although the driving of a large vessel by stored electricity is quite possible, it is also about the most expensive method which has ever been proposed.
Electric power from storage batteries has been used as an auxiliary in the propulsion and manoeuvring of submarines. In aerial navigation electricity has so far been employed to a very limited extent. Small airships have been designed to carry electric accumulators connected with various motor-driven propellers for raising, lowering, going ahead or astern, and steering. The switches which control the passage of the current to these propellers are connected with a wireless telegraph receiver, so that each operation may be started or stopped by a particular ether wave or series of waves. Demonstrations of such 'wireless-controlled' airships have been given in theatres; their field of usefulness, if any, is in connection with war on land or sea. Whether they will have any better fate than other devices for dropping bombs over the enemy's camps or ships remains to be seen.
One inventor has, I believe, suggested a means of direct electrical propulsion for aeroplanes, the current being derived from a petrol-driven generator and carried to motors attached to propellers so arranged as to give certain advantages in stability and manoeuvring. As yet, however, the probability of electricity being applied to locomotion in the air as well as on land and on sea is somewhat remote.
ADAM GOWANS WHYTE, B.Sc.
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